Historical Roots of Mercenaries and Modern Private Military Companies
( Pp. 70-77)
More about authors
Stepanov Sergey A.
Dr. Sci. (Hist.); Professor
Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba
Moscow, Russian Federation Moseikina Marina N. Dr. Sci. (Hist.); Professor; Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba
Lomonosov Moscow State University
Moscow, Russian Federation Syzdykova Zhibek S. Dr. Sci. (Hist.); leading researcher Missamu Bukondzo Nyuptia Audrey postgraduate student; Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba; Moscow, Russian Federation.
Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba
Moscow, Russian Federation Moseikina Marina N. Dr. Sci. (Hist.); Professor; Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba
Lomonosov Moscow State University
Moscow, Russian Federation Syzdykova Zhibek S. Dr. Sci. (Hist.); leading researcher Missamu Bukondzo Nyuptia Audrey postgraduate student; Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba; Moscow, Russian Federation.
Abstract:
This article explores the phenomenon of private military companies (PMCs) and their role in modern armed conflicts, peacekeeping operations, and security in global hotspots. It focuses on the history of mercenarism, from ancient times to modern PMCs operating in various regions of the world, particularly in Africa. The authors note that PMCs play a significant role in hybrid warfare, providing a wide range of services, from combat operations to technical support. The article explores the legal status of PMCs, noting the uncertainty in international law, and also highlights their activities in various regions, such as the Middle East and Africa. Specific examples of PMC use in Africa, where they actively participate in conflicts and influence political processes, are examined. The article concludes with conclusions on the need to regulate the activities of PMCs and bring them into the legal framework to prevent abuses and violations of international law.
How to Cite:
Stepanov, S.A., Moseikina, M.N., Syzdykova, Zh.S., & Missamu Bukondzo Nyuptia Audrey (2026). Historical roots of mercenaries and modern private military companies. Sociopolitical Sciences, 16(2), 70–77. DOI: 10.33693/2223-0092-2026-16-2-70-77. EDN: PRKMMP
Reference list:
Veselov Yu.A. History and role of PMCs in modern world politics. World Politics. 2021. No. 3. Pp. 19–39. (In Rus.). DOI: 10.25136/2409-8671.2021.3.33590. EDN: WIBEFL.
Egorova A.K. Activities of private military and security companies: Issues of legitimacy and law. Legal Studies. 2022. No. 5. Pp. 13–22. (In Rus.). DOI: 10.25136/2409-7136.2022.5.38056. EDN: UTVDYL.
Konovalov I.P., Valetsky O.V. Evolution of private military companies. Pushkino: Center for Strategic Conjuncture, 2013. 136 p. ISBN: 978-5-906233-20-2.
Kurylev K.P., Martynenko E.V., Parkhitko N.P., Stanis D.V. The phenomenon of private military companies in the military and power policies of states in the 21st century. Bulletin of International Organizations. 2017. Vol. 12. No. 4. Pp. 130–149. (In Rus.). DOI: 10.17323/1996-7845-2017-04-130.
Machiavelli N. The prince. Moscow: Planeta, 1990. 84 p. ISBN: 5-85250-432-7.
Manoilo A.V., Zaitsev A.Ya. International legal status of the first military companies. Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2020. Vol. 90. No. 1. Pp. 47–55. (In Rus.). EDN: LCXSJN.
Makhnev V.A., Zainullina P.R. China’s private military companies in Africa. The Power of History and the History of Power. 2022. Vol. 8. No. 4 (38). Pp. 92–99. (In Rus.). ISSN 2415-7015.
Mikhailenok O.M., Tsvyak A.A. Private military companies as a factor of modern politics. Social and Humanitarian Knowledge. 2023. No. 4. Pp. 97–100. (In Rus.). ISSN: 0869-8120. EDN: WDHJOS.
Nadtoka R.V. Private military companies as an active conductor of national interests of the state: Great threat or new opportunities for Russia? Sciff. Questions of Students Science. 2018. No. 1 (17). Pp. 206–216. (In Rus.). EDN: YRPHSF.
Nebolsina M.A., Nikitin A.I. The perspectives of international regulation of private military and security companies. MGIMO Review of International Relations. 2016. No. 2 (47). Pp. 145–160. (In Rus.). DOI: 0.24833/2071-8160-2016-2-47-145-160. EDN: VWVFRN.
Ragunshtein A.G., Ragunshtein O.V. The evolution of the French military presence in North and West Africa at the beginning of the XXI century. Uchyonye zapiski. Electronic Scientific Journal of the Kursk State University. 2023. No. 2 (66). Pp. 93–102. (In Rus.)
Filippov V.R. Central African Republic: Confrontation between the Kremlin and the Elysee Palace. Locus: People, Society, Cultures, Meaning. 2019. No. 1. Pp. 124–143. (In Rus.)
Shashkin P.A. Political aspects of mercenarism. Humanities and Social Sciences. Bulletin of the Financial University. 2017. No. 5. Pp. 47–55. (In Rus.). DOI: 10.26794/2226-7867-2017-7-5-47-55. EDN: ZRKRUF.
Yakovlev M.M. Private military companies and private intelligence companies: Past, present, future. Moscow: Buki Vedi. 2024. 116 p. ISBN: 978-5-4465-4023-5.
Avant D.D. The market for force: The consequences of privatizing security. Cambridge University Press, 2005. 328 p. ISBN: 10-0-521-85026-6.
Chesterman S., Lehnardt Ch. From mercenaries to market. The rise and regulation of private military companies. 2nd unchanged paperback edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. 287 p. ISBN: 9780199563890. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199228485.001.0001.
Egorova A.K. Activities of private military and security companies: Issues of legitimacy and law. Legal Studies. 2022. No. 5. Pp. 13–22. (In Rus.). DOI: 10.25136/2409-7136.2022.5.38056. EDN: UTVDYL.
Konovalov I.P., Valetsky O.V. Evolution of private military companies. Pushkino: Center for Strategic Conjuncture, 2013. 136 p. ISBN: 978-5-906233-20-2.
Kurylev K.P., Martynenko E.V., Parkhitko N.P., Stanis D.V. The phenomenon of private military companies in the military and power policies of states in the 21st century. Bulletin of International Organizations. 2017. Vol. 12. No. 4. Pp. 130–149. (In Rus.). DOI: 10.17323/1996-7845-2017-04-130.
Machiavelli N. The prince. Moscow: Planeta, 1990. 84 p. ISBN: 5-85250-432-7.
Manoilo A.V., Zaitsev A.Ya. International legal status of the first military companies. Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2020. Vol. 90. No. 1. Pp. 47–55. (In Rus.). EDN: LCXSJN.
Makhnev V.A., Zainullina P.R. China’s private military companies in Africa. The Power of History and the History of Power. 2022. Vol. 8. No. 4 (38). Pp. 92–99. (In Rus.). ISSN 2415-7015.
Mikhailenok O.M., Tsvyak A.A. Private military companies as a factor of modern politics. Social and Humanitarian Knowledge. 2023. No. 4. Pp. 97–100. (In Rus.). ISSN: 0869-8120. EDN: WDHJOS.
Nadtoka R.V. Private military companies as an active conductor of national interests of the state: Great threat or new opportunities for Russia? Sciff. Questions of Students Science. 2018. No. 1 (17). Pp. 206–216. (In Rus.). EDN: YRPHSF.
Nebolsina M.A., Nikitin A.I. The perspectives of international regulation of private military and security companies. MGIMO Review of International Relations. 2016. No. 2 (47). Pp. 145–160. (In Rus.). DOI: 0.24833/2071-8160-2016-2-47-145-160. EDN: VWVFRN.
Ragunshtein A.G., Ragunshtein O.V. The evolution of the French military presence in North and West Africa at the beginning of the XXI century. Uchyonye zapiski. Electronic Scientific Journal of the Kursk State University. 2023. No. 2 (66). Pp. 93–102. (In Rus.)
Filippov V.R. Central African Republic: Confrontation between the Kremlin and the Elysee Palace. Locus: People, Society, Cultures, Meaning. 2019. No. 1. Pp. 124–143. (In Rus.)
Shashkin P.A. Political aspects of mercenarism. Humanities and Social Sciences. Bulletin of the Financial University. 2017. No. 5. Pp. 47–55. (In Rus.). DOI: 10.26794/2226-7867-2017-7-5-47-55. EDN: ZRKRUF.
Yakovlev M.M. Private military companies and private intelligence companies: Past, present, future. Moscow: Buki Vedi. 2024. 116 p. ISBN: 978-5-4465-4023-5.
Avant D.D. The market for force: The consequences of privatizing security. Cambridge University Press, 2005. 328 p. ISBN: 10-0-521-85026-6.
Chesterman S., Lehnardt Ch. From mercenaries to market. The rise and regulation of private military companies. 2nd unchanged paperback edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. 287 p. ISBN: 9780199563890. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199228485.001.0001.
Keywords:
mercenarism, Montreux Document, private military companies (PMCs), legal status of PMCs, hybrid warfare, peacekeeping operations, Afrika Korps, Central African Republic, Mali.
